DIY or Pro? When to Call Experts for Your Interior Painting Needs

DIY or Pro? When to Call Experts for Your Interior Painting Needs

reliability

When it comes to giving your home a fresh new look, painting the interior is often the first step many of us consider. After all, a new coat of paint can completely transform the atmosphere of your home. But the big question remains: Should you tackle this project yourself (DIY) or call in the professionals?


DIY projects can be really tempting, especially when you think about the potential savings. It's also a great chance to get creative, pour your personality into each room, and get a real sense of achievement. However, interior painting is not as straightforward as it might seem, and doing it yourself can sometimes be more of a hassle than it's worth.


Firstly, consider the size of the project.

reliability

  • drying
  • preservation
  • harmony
  • expertise
  • scuffing
  • coatings
  • coordination
  • application
  • aesthetics
  • transitions
  • priming
  • value
If youre just looking to refresh one small room, you might be able to handle it on your own. But, if you're planning on painting multiple rooms, or those with high ceilings or requiring significant prep work, the scale of the job might quickly become overwhelming. Not to forget, professional painters are equipped to handle larger projects with more efficiency.


Preparation is another crucial factor-arguably just as important as the painting itself! Properly prepping the space involves cleaning walls, repairing damages, sanding, and applying primer. care This can be incredibly time-consuming, and if not done correctly, it could affect the final look. Professionals have the expertise to do this quickly and effectively, ensuring that the paint will look its best.


The quality of the finish is another important consideration. Professional painters have the experience and tools necessary to achieve a smooth, even finish without streaks or missed spots. texture They know how to mix paints correctly and choose the right type of paint for different surfaces and rooms. DIY efforts, while earnest, might end up uneven or require touch-ups sooner than expected.


Safety is also a major concern, especially in homes with high ceilings or lots of stairwells. Professional painters are equipped to handle such challenges safely, using the right ladders and scaffolding.

upkeep

  • protection
  • precision
  • humidity
  • coverage
  • detail
  • maintenance
  • inspection
  • walls
  • exteriors
  • texture
  • woodwork
  • planning
  • gloss
  • uniformity
  • performance
On the other hand, tackling such tasks without proper equipment or experience can be risky.


However, its not all doom and gloom for the DIY enthusiast! consistency lighting If you have a steady hand, a keen eye for detail, and a lot of patience, you could very well handle smaller painting projects.

lines

  1. resistance
  2. preparation
  3. color
  4. property
  5. plaster
  6. protection
  7. precision
  8. humidity
  9. coverage
  10. detail
Its a great way to save money and feel connected to your space.

materials

  1. uniformity
  2. performance
  3. residential
  4. premium
  5. solutions
  6. washability
  7. durable
  8. floors
  9. spaces
  10. matte
  11. finishes
  12. curing
  13. satin
  14. drywall
Just be sure to do thorough research and prepare properly before you open that first can of paint!


In conclusion, while DIY projects can be fun and fulfilling, interior painting often benefits from a professional touch. Consider the scope and scale of your project, the preparation required, and your own skill level and safety.

care

  • aesthetics
  • transitions
  • priming
  • value
  • palette
  • resistance
  • preparation
  • color
  • property
  • plaster
If in doubt, calling in the experts can save you time, stress, and potentially even money in the long run!

consistency

  1. performance
  2. residential
  3. premium
  4. solutions
  5. washability
  6. durable
  7. floors
  8. spaces
  9. matte
  10. finishes
  11. curing
reliability After all, nothing beats the peace of mind that comes with knowing the job has been done right!

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Citations and other links

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).

 

 

Canada
A vertical triband design (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre.
Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"
 
Royal anthem: "God Save the King"[1]
 
A projection of North America with Canada highlighted in green
Capital Ottawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W / 45.400; -75.667
Largest city Toronto
Official languages
Demonym Canadian
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
 
• Monarch
 Charles III
Mary Simon
Mark Carney
 
Legislature Parliament
• Upper house
 Senate
• Lower house
 House of Commons
Independence 
from the United Kingdom
 
July 1, 1867
November 15, 1926
December 11, 1931
April 17, 1982
 
Area
• Total area
 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)
 11.76 (2015)[2]
• Total land area
 9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• 2025 Q4 estimate
 Neutral decrease 41,575,585[3] (37th)
• 2021 census
 Neutral increase 36,991,981[4]
• Density
 4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (230th)
GDP  (PPP) 2025 estimate
• Total
 Increase $2.723 trillion[5] (16th)
• Per capita
 Increase $65,500[5] (30th)
GDP  (nominal) 2025 estimate
• Total
 Decrease $2.284 trillion[5] (10th)
• Per capita
 Decrease $54,935[5] (23rd)
Gini  (2024) Positive decrease 29.2[6]
low inequality
HDI  (2023) Increase 0.939[7] very high (16th)
Currency Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone UTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)
 UTC−2.5 to −7
Calling code +1
ISO 3166 code CA
Internet TLD .ca

Canada[a] is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the second-largest country by total area, with the longest coastline of any country. Its border with the United States is the longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of over 41 million, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in its urban areas and large areas being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations, and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.

A developed country, Canada has a high nominal per capita income globally and its advanced economy ranks among the largest in the world by nominal GDP, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is recognized as a middle power; its support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries. Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participation in multiple international organizations and forums.

Etymology

[edit]
Main article: Name of Canada

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning 'village' or 'settlement'.[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[10] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[10]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] Following the British conquest of New France, this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791.[12] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively referred to as the Canadas until their union as the Province of Canada in 1841.[13]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title.[14] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".[15]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[16]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Canada
Further information: Timeline of Canadian history and Historiography of Canada

Indigenous peoples

[edit]

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[17] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[18] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[19] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[20] Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[21] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and their offspring subsequently developed their own identity.[21]

A map of Canada showing the percent of self-reported indigenous identity (First Nations, Inuit, Métis) by census division, according to the 2021 Canadian census[22]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[23] and two million,[24] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[25] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.[26] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity,[27] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[28]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[29] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[30] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.[31] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.[32] Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[33] A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008.[34] This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide,[35] settlement agreements,[34] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[36]

European colonization

[edit]
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750. Possessions of British America (pink), New France (blue), and New Spain (orange); California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated.[37]

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[38] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[39] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.[40] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[41] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[42] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[43]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.[44] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.[45] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[46] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[47] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[48]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[49] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[50] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[51]

British North America

[edit]
Painting of General Wolfe dying in front of the British flag while attended by officers and native allies
Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City.[52]

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[16] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[53] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[54] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[55] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[56] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[16]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[57] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[58] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[59]

Painting of Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams
War of 1812 heroine Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams[60]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[61] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[62] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[63] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[23]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[64] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[16] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.[65] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[66] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–British Columbia border.[67]

Confederation and expansion

[edit]
Refer to caption
Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867[68]

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[69] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[70] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[71] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[72] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[72] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[73]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.[74] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",[75] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[76] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[77] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[78] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[79] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[80]

Early 20th century

[edit]
1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three Frenchwomen pulling a drag harrow
English: They serve France. How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds.
Quebec French: They serve France. Everyone can be of service. Buy Victory Bonds.

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.[81] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[82] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[83] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[82] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.[84]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[85] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[86] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[82]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War.[87] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[82] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[88] Despite another conscription crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[89]

Contemporary era

[edit]

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[90] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[91]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965,[92] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[93] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[94] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[95]

refer to caption
A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms[96]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[97] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[98] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[99]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[100] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,[101] and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[102] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[103] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[104] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[102]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[105] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[106] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[107] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.[108] Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars,[109] and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military".[110] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.[111]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War[112] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[113] The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, causing widespread social and economic disruption.[114] In 2021, possible gravesites of Indigenous children were found near former Canadian residential schools, highlighting the cultural genocide against Indigenous peoples.[115] A trade war involving the United States began on February 1, 2025, when U.S. president Donald Trump signed orders imposing tariffs on goods entering the United States, alongside rhetoric suggesting the annexation of Canada.[116]

Geography

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Canada
refer to caption
A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country.[117] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes.[118] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 square kilometres (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.[119] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).[120] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi)[b]—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on Hans Island,[121] and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.[122] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[123] In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, at 52°37'W, to Mount St. Elias, Yukon Territory, at 141°W.[124]

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the Interior Plains, the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago.[125] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.[119] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.[119] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water.[126] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains, and the Arctic Cordillera.[127] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes.[128]

Climate

[edit]
Main articles: Temperature in Canada and Climate change in Canada
Köppen climate classification types of Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[129] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[130]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[131] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[119] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[132] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.[133] Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally,[134] with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.[135]

Biodiversity

[edit]
Main article: Wildlife of Canada
Map showing Canada divided into different ecozones
Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada. Ecozones are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code.[136]

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[137] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[138] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,[139] due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[140] About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure".[141] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[142] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 square kilometres (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[143] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions.[144]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[145] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[145] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park was established in 1885.[146] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park was established in 1893.[147] Established in 2015, Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area.[148] Canada's largest national wildlife region, established in 2018, is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area.[149]

Government and politics

[edit]
Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada
Aerial view of Canadian Parliament Buildings and their surroundings

Canada is described as a "full democracy",[150] with a tradition of liberalism,[151] and an egalitarian,[152] moderate political ideology.[153] Since the 1960s, an emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.[154] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of Canadian federalism.[155]

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics":[c] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada[158] and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[159] The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale.[159] Five parties had representatives elected to Parliament in the 2025 election—the Liberals, who formed a minority government; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition; the Bloc Québécois; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left[160]); and the Green Party.[161] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[162]

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[163] The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries[164] and Canada's 10 provinces. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.[165]

King Charles III
Charles III
King
Governor General Mary Simon
Mary Simon
Governor general
Prime Minister Mark Carney
Mark Carney
Prime minister

The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada.[166] However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations,[167] the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,[168] the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House.[169] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[167] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[170]

The House of Commons chamber
The House of Commons in its temporary location, the West Block[171]

The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.[172]

Each of the 343 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[173] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[174]

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[175] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,[176] and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[177]

Law

[edit]
Main article: Law of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[178] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[179] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[180] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[181]

Supreme Court of Canada building
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada.[182] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice.[183] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[184]

Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates.[185] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[186] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[187] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[188]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[189] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[190] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[190] These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[191]

Provinces and territories

[edit]
Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada
See also: Canadian federalism
Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories
Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories[192]

Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[193] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and social programs,[194] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[195]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown[196] and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada[197] and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council,[198] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively[199] and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[200]

Foreign relations

[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Canada
Diplomatic missions of Canada[201]
  Countries that host a Canadian Embassy or High Commission
  Interests section and other representations
  Countries that do not host Canadian diplomatic missions
  Canada

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions.[202] Globalization has significantly influenced Canadian foreign policies,[203] with the country known for its promotion of peace and security through mediation,[204] and for providing aid to developing countries.[205]

Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship;[206] historically close allies, they co-operate regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts.[207] Canada also maintains historic and traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France,[208] along with both countries' former colonies through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[209] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War.[88] Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.[201]

Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participating in multiple international organizations.[210] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 and formed the North American Aerospace Defense Command together with the United States in 1958.[211] The country has membership in the World Trade Organization, the Five Eyes, the G7 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[212] The country was a founding member the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989 and joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990.[213] Canada ratified the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, and seven principal UN human rights conventions and covenants since then.[214]

Military

[edit]
Main articles: Canadian Armed Forces and Canadian peacekeeping
Further information: Military history of Canada
A fighter jet taking off from a runway
A Canadian McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet in "special markings" used by the 2014 CF-18 Demonstration Team[215]

Alongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations.[216] The Canadian unified forces comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel—increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under "Strong, Secure, Engaged"[217]—with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.[218][d] In 2022, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) – placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.[220]

Canada's role in developing peacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.[221] Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.[222] Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,[223] such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[223] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.[224] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, rather than directly through the UN.[225] The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[226]

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Canada
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.[227]

Canada's mixed-market economy[228] is highly developed, ranking as the world's ninth-largest by nominal GDP as of 2023, at approximately US$2.221 trillion.[229] The country is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[230] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.[231] Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.[231] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.[231] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[232]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country.[233] The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science, and industry use data from Statistics Canada to enable financial planning and develop economic policy.[234] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[235] It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (14th in 2023)[236] and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world".[237] It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (19th in 2024).[238] Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on the Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom[239] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.[240] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.[241] Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability[242] and foreign direct investment.[243] The unemployment rate in 2025 was 6.8 percent.[244]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[245] The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[246] Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[247] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.[248]

 
  Canada
  Countries and territories with free-trade agreements[249]

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the Second World War.[250] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[251] As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.[249]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[252] Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas,[253] and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world.[254] The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third- or fourth-largest.[255] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[256] Canada's main exports are zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[257] Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[258] The country's fishing and tourism industries are also a key contributor to the economy.[259]

Science and technology

[edit]
Main article: Science and technology in Canada

In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion.[260] As of 2023, the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine.[261] The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index,[262] and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[263] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with approximately 95 percent of its population aged 15 and above.[264]

The Canadian-built Space Shuttle robotic arm (left), referred to as Canadarm, transferred the P5 truss segment over to the Canadian-built space station robotic arm, referred to as Canadarm2.[265]

Canada's achievements in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,[266] the discovery of insulin,[267] the development of the polio vaccine,[268] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[269] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[270] the development of the electron microscope,[271] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[272] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.[273]

The Canadian Space Agency runs an active space program focused on deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, along with rockets and satellites.[274] Canada launched its first satellite, Alouette 1, in 1962.[275] It contributes to the International Space Station and is known for its robotic tools, such as multiple Canadarms.[276] Canada has initiated many long-term projects, including the Radarsat satellite series and the Black Brant rocket series.[277]

Demographics

[edit]
Main articles: Demographics of Canada and List of cities in Canada
Canada population density map (2014)
Top left: The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely inhabited and heavily industrialized region.[278]

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[279] It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.[280] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[281] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[282] driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification.[283] A record 483,390 immigrants were admitted in 2024.[284] Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.[285] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.[286]

Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world,[279] with approximately 95 percent of the population residing south of the 55th parallel north.[287] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[288] Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.[289] The majority of Canadians (over 70 percent ) live below the 49th parallel, with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.[290] The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[291]

The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.[292] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[292]

Largest metropolitan areas in Canada
 
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
1 Toronto Ontario 6,202,225 11 London Ontario 543,551
2 Montreal Quebec 4,291,732 12 Halifax Nova Scotia 465,703
3 Vancouver British Columbia 2,642,825 13 Niagara Region Ontario 433,604
4 Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,488,307 14 Windsor Ontario 422,630
5 Calgary Alberta 1,481,806 15 Oshawa Ontario 415,311
6 Edmonton Alberta 1,418,118 16 Victoria British Columbia 397,237
7 Quebec City Quebec 839,311 17 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 317,480
8 Winnipeg Manitoba 834,678 18 Regina Saskatchewan 249,217
9 Hamilton Ontario 785,184 19 Sherbrooke Quebec 227,398
10 Waterloo Region Ontario 575,847 20 Kelowna British Columbia 222,162

Ethnicity

[edit]
Main article: Ethnic origins of people in Canada

Respondents in the 2021 Canadian census self-reported over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins".[294] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).[295] Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.[294]

The top 168 ethnic or cultural origins self-reported by Canadians in the 2021 census[296]

The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[e] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).[299]

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[294] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million people, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[300] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[301][f] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent), Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent), Filipinos (960,000 2.6 percent), Arabs (690,000; 1.9 percent), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6 percent), Southeast Asians (390,000; 1.1 percent), West Asians (360,000; 1.0 percent), Koreans (220,000; 0.6 percent) and Japanese (99,000; 0.3 percent).[294]

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[303] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.[304] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.[305] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[306]

Languages

[edit]
Main article: Languages of Canada
Percentage of the population who could conduct a conversation in English and French in 2021[307]

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.[292] Canada's official bilingualism policies give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-language minorities guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[308]

Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.[309] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba, with Ontario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[310] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an Acadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[311] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.[312]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[313] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[314] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[315] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.[316]

As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890).[292] The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[317] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[318] Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.[319]

Religion

[edit]
Main article: Religion in Canada
Freedom of religion sculpture by Marlene Hilton Moore at the McMurtry Gardens of Justice in Toronto[320]

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs.[321] The Constitution of Canada refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[322] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right.[323]

Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.[321] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[324] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[325] Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[326] they still believe in God.[327] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.[328]

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population,[g] are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.[331] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).[329] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.[332]

Health

[edit]
Main article: Healthcare in Canada

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[333] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[334] and is universal.[335] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".[336] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[337] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[337] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.[338]

graph of expenditures as described in the caption
Health expenditure and financing by country. Total health expenditure per capita in US dollars (PPP).

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years.[292] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[339] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[340] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[341] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes.[341] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[342] There are approximately 8 million people aged 15 and older with one or more disabilities in Canada.[343]

In 2024, the Canadian Institute for Health Information estimated that healthcare spending reached $372 billion, or 12.4 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[344] In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD.[345] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[346] The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[347] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[347] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,[348] and hospital capacity.[349]

Education

[edit]
Main articles: Education in Canada and Higher education in Canada
Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021[350]

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[351] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government.[352] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[353] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[354] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[355] The nation's three top ranking universities are the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia.[356] The largest university is the University of Toronto, which has over 85,000 students.[357]

According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[358] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[359] Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[360] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[361] As of 2022, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[362]

Culture

[edit]
Main article: Culture of Canada
Further information: Canadian values and Canadian identity
Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto[363]

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions.[364] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[365] Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected.[366] Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized human rights and inclusiveness for all its people.[367] Canadian identity shifted from primarily British-based to multicultural between the 1960s and 1970s.[368]

The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments[369] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[370] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[371] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures with diverse areas and ethnic enclaves.[372]

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[373] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBT rights, and legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.[374] Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[375]

Symbols

[edit]
Main articles: National symbols of Canada and Canadian royal symbols
The Mother Beaver sculpture outside the House of Commons
The Mother Beaver on the Canadian parliament's Peace Tower.[376] The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—Tudor rose: English; fleur de lis: French; thistle: Scottish; shamrock: Irish; and leek: Welsh.

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[377] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, northern climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[378] The use of the maple leaf as a symbol dates to the early 18th century in New France.[379] The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the arms of Canada.[380] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[381] The arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[382]

Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "A mari usque ad mare" ("from sea to sea"),[383] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[380] and, more recently, the Indigenous totem pole and Inuksuk.[384] Canadian cuisine items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, Nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and the Quebec dishes of poutine and tourtière, alongside material items such as tuques, canoes and Hudson's Bay point blanket are considered as uniquely Canadian.[385] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the coat of arms on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.[386] An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.[386]

Literature

[edit]
Main article: Canadian literature
Author Margaret Atwood has suggested that during the 1970s Canadian literature was still looking for a national identity.[387]

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[388] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[389] This developed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality.[390] The evolution of Canadian literature is intricately linked to the country's historical and social contexts, often mirroring the challenges and changes in Canadian society.[391] As Canadian literature progressed into the 20th and 21st centuries, it began to address a broader array of subjects and themes, such as women's rights, LGBTQ rights, immigrant experiences, environmental issues, the relationship with Indigenous peoples, and Canadian values and identity.[392]

Financial support from governmental bodies, such as the Canada Council for the Arts and various provincial grant programs, facilitates the creation, publication, and promotion of works by Canadian authors.[393] Numerous Canadian authors have received international literary awards including the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Booker Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.[394] Canadian literary awards and prizes include the Governor General's Literary Awards, the Giller Prize, the Latner Griffin Writers' Trust Poetry Prize, the Burt Award for First Nations, Inuit and Métis Literature and several accolades for literature aimed at children.[395]

Visual arts

[edit]
Main article: Canadian art
Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset
The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada.[396]

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,[397] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[398] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[399] The Group of Seven is often considered the first uniquely Canadian artistic group and style of painting.[400] Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[401]

Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in early Canada, especially Quebec.[402] The Government of Canada has played a role in the development of art, through the department of Canadian Heritage by giving grants to art galleries,[403] as well as by establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts.[404] The Canada Council Art Bank also helps artists by buying and publicizing their work.[405] Great achievements in art in Canada are recognized through various awards and prizes, such as the Molson Prize, the Audain Prize for the Visual Arts, and the Governor General's Visual and Media Arts Awards.[406]

Music

[edit]
Main article: Music of Canada
Original publication of "O Canada" in English, 1908 (French, 1880)[407]

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.[408] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, music charts, and television music video channels.[409] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.[410] As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world,[411] producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles.[412] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[413] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards.[414]: 127  The Canadian Music Hall of Fame honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[415]

"God Save the King" has been used in Canada since the late 1700s and is the country's de facto royal anthem.[416] Patriotic music by Canadians dates back over 200 years, with "The Bold Canadian", written in 1812, popular throughout the 19th century.[417] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was popular and served as an unofficial national anthem of English Canada.[418] "O Canada", originally composed in French in 1880, also served as an unofficial national anthem during the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.[407]

Media

[edit]
Main article: Media of Canada
A Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) satellite truck, used for live television broadcasts

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized.[419] The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada".[420] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[421] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[414]: 59 

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".[422] The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[423] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[424]

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[425] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[426] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[427]

Sports

[edit]
Main article: Sports in Canada
Our Game sculpture by Edie Parker outside the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto[428]

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[429] Other major professional games include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and football.[430] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.[431]

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[432] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, three Major League Soccer teams, and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the curling tournaments hosted by Curling Canada.[433] Canadians identified hockey as their preferred sport for viewing, followed by soccer and then basketball.[434]

In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023.[435] This was closely followed by cycling (33 percent) and running (27 percent).[435] The popularity of specific sports varies;[436] in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey (the most popular young adult team sport),[435] skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport),[437] tennis or basketball.[435] Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[438]

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics[439]—particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation"—and has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,[440] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[441] the 2010 Winter Olympics,[442] the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup,[443] the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games.[444] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.[445]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ English: /ˈkænədə/ ⓘ,[8] French: [kanada] ⓘ
  2. ^ 6,416 km (3,987 mi) via the contiguous 48 states and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) via Alaska[120]
  3. ^ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[156] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."[157]
  4. ^ "The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[219]
  5. ^ All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[297] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[298]
  6. ^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[302]
  7. ^ Catholic Church (29.9%), United Church (3.3%), Anglican Church (3.1%), Eastern Orthodoxy (1.7%), Baptistism (1.2%), Pentecostalism and other Charismatic (1.1%) Anabaptist (0.4%), Jehovah's Witness (0.4%), Latter Day Saints (0.2%), Lutheran (0.9%), Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness) (0.3%), Presbyterian (0.8%), and Reformed (0.2%).[329] 7.6 percent simply identified as "Christians".[330]

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Further reading

[edit]
Main articles: Bibliography of Canada and Bibliography of Canadian history

Overview

Culture

Demography and statistics

Economy

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Geography and environment

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Social welfare

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Canada at Wikipedia's sister projects

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60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W / 60; -110

 

This article is about the thermoset plastic materials. For the chemical group, see epoxide.

 

A syringe of "5-minute" epoxy glue, containing separate compartments for the epoxy resin and the hardener
Structure of the epoxide group, a reactive functional group present in all epoxy resins

Epoxy is the family of basic components or cured end products of epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides, a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups. The epoxide functional group is also collectively called epoxy.[1] The IUPAC name for an epoxide group is an oxirane.

Epoxy resins may be reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols and thiols (sometimes called mercaptans). These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as curing.

Reaction of polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners forms a thermosetting polymer, often with favorable mechanical properties and high thermal and chemical resistance. Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including metal coatings, composites,[2] use in electronics, electrical components (e.g. for chips on board), LEDs, high-tension electrical insulators, paintbrush manufacturing, fiber-reinforced plastic materials, and adhesives for structural[3] and other purposes.[4][5]

The health risks associated with exposure to epoxy resin compounds include contact dermatitis and allergic reactions, as well as respiratory problems from breathing vapor and sanding dust, especially from compounds not fully cured.[6][7][8]

History

[edit]

Condensation of epoxides and amines was first reported and patented by Paul Schlack of Germany in 1934.[9] Claims of discovery of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resins include Pierre Castan[10] in 1943. Castan's work was licensed by Ciba, Ltd. of Switzerland, which went on to become one of the three major epoxy resin producers worldwide. In 1946, Sylvan Greenlee,[11] working for the Devoe & Raynolds Company (now part of Hexion Inc.[12]), patented resin derived from bisphenol-A and epichlorohydrin.[13]

Chemistry

[edit]

Manufacture

[edit]
Coupling reaction of a hydroxy group with epichlorohydrin, followed by dehydrohalogenation

Most of the commercially used epoxy monomers are produced by the reaction of a compound with acidic hydroxy groups and epichlorohydrin. First a hydroxy group reacts in a coupling reaction with epichlorohydrin, followed by dehydrohalogenation. Epoxy resins produced from such epoxy monomers are called glycidyl-based epoxy resins. The hydroxy group may be derived from aliphatic diols, polyols (polyether polyols), phenolic compounds or dicarboxylic acids. Phenols can be compounds such as bisphenol A and novolak. Polyols can be compounds such as 1,4-butanediol. Di- and polyols lead to glycidyl ethers. Dicarboxylic acids such as hexahydrophthalic acid are used for diglycide ester resins. Instead of a hydroxy group, also the nitrogen atom of an amine or amide can be reacted with epichlorohydrin.

Synthesis of an epoxide by use of a peracid

The other production route for epoxy resins is the conversion of aliphatic or cycloaliphatic alkenes with peracids:[14][15] In contrast to glycidyl-based epoxy resins, this production of such epoxy monomers does not require an acidic hydrogen atom but an aliphatic double bond.

The epoxide group is also sometimes referred to as an oxirane group.

Bisphenol-based

[edit]
Synthesis of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether

The most common epoxy resins are based on reacting epichlorohydrin (ECH) with bisphenol A,  resulting in a different chemical substance known as bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (commonly known as BADGE or DGEBA). Bisphenol A-based resins are the most widely commercialised resins but also other bisphenols are analogously reacted with epichlorohydrin, for example Bisphenol F.

In this two-stage reaction, epichlorohydrin is first added to bisphenol A (bis(3-chloro-2-hydroxy-propoxy)bisphenol A is formed), then a bisepoxide is formed in a condensation reaction with a stoichiometric amount of sodium hydroxide. The chlorine atom is released as sodium chloride (NaCl) and the hydrogen atom as water.

Higher molecular weight diglycidyl ethers (n ≥ 1) are formed by the reaction of the bisphenol A diglycidyl ether formed with further bisphenol A, this is called prepolymerization:

Synthesis of bisphenol-A-diglycidyl ether with a high molar mass

A product comprising a few repeat units (n = 1 to 2) is a viscous, clear liquid; this is called a liquid epoxy resin. A product comprising more repeating units (n = 2 to 30) is at room temperature a colorless solid, which is correspondingly referred to as solid epoxy resin.

Instead of bisphenol A, other bisphenols (especially bisphenol F) or brominated bisphenols (e. g. tetrabromobisphenol A) can be used for the said epoxidation and prepolymerisation. Bisphenol F may undergo epoxy resin formation in a similar fashion to bisphenol A. These resins typically have lower viscosity and a higher mean epoxy content per gram than bisphenol A resins, which (once cured) gives them increased chemical resistance.

Important epoxy resins are produced from combining epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A to give bisphenol A diglycidyl ethers.

Structure of bisphenol-A diglycidyl ether epoxy resin: n denotes the number of polymerized subunits and is typically in the range from 0 to 25

Increasing the ratio of bisphenol A to epichlorohydrin during manufacture produces higher molecular weight linear polyethers with glycidyl end groups, which are semi-solid to hard crystalline materials at room temperature depending on the molecular weight achieved. This route of synthesis is known as the "taffy" process. The usual route to higher molecular weight epoxy resins is to start with liquid epoxy resin (LER) and add a calculated amount of bisphenol A and then a catalyst is added and the reaction heated to circa 160 °C (320 °F). This process is known as "advancement".[16] As the molecular weight of the resin increases, the epoxide content reduces and the material behaves more and more like a thermoplastic. Very high molecular weight polycondensates (ca. 30,000–70,000 g/mol) form a class known as phenoxy resins and contain virtually no epoxide groups (since the terminal epoxy groups are insignificant compared to the total size of the molecule). These resins do however contain hydroxyl groups throughout the backbone, which may also undergo other cross-linking reactions, e.g. with aminoplasts, phenoplasts and isocyanates.

Epoxy resins are polymeric or semi-polymeric materials or an oligomer, and as such rarely exist as pure substances, since variable chain length results from the polymerisation reaction used to produce them. High purity grades can be produced for certain applications, e.g. using a distillation purification process. One downside of high purity liquid grades is their tendency to form crystalline solids due to their highly regular structure, which then require melting to enable processing.

An important criterion for epoxy resins is the Epoxy value which is connected to the epoxide group content. This is expressed as the "epoxide equivalent weight", which is the ratio between the molecular weight of the monomer and the number of epoxide groups. This parameter is used to calculate the mass of co-reactant (hardener) to use when curing epoxy resins. Epoxies are typically cured with stoichiometric or near-stoichiometric quantities of hardener to achieve the best physical properties.

Novolaks

[edit]
General structure of epoxyphenol novolak with n usually in the range from 0 to 4. The compound is present in the form of various constitutional isomers.

Novolaks are produced by reacting phenol with methanal (formaldehyde). The reaction of epichlorohydrin and novolaks produces novolaks with glycidyl residues, such as epoxyphenol novolak (EPN) or epoxycresol novolak (ECN). These highly viscous to solid resins typically carry 2 to 6 epoxy groups per molecule. By curing, highly cross-linked polymers with high temperature and chemical resistance but low mechanical flexibility are formed due to the high functionality, and hence high crosslink density of these resins.[14]

Aliphatic

[edit]
Structural formula of 3,4-Epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3',4'-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate

There are two common types of aliphatic epoxy resins: those obtained by epoxidation of double bonds (cycloaliphatic epoxides and epoxidized vegetable oils) and those formed by reaction with epichlorohydrin (glycidyl ethers and esters).

Cycloaliphatic epoxides contain one or more aliphatic rings in the molecule on which the oxirane ring is contained (e.g. 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3',4'-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate). They are produced by the reaction of a cyclic alkene with a peracid (see above).[17] Cycloaliphatic epoxides are characterised by their aliphatic structure, high oxirane content and the absence of chlorine, which results in low viscosity and (once cured) good weather resistance, low dielectric constants and high Tg. However, aliphatic epoxy resins polymerize very slowly at room temperature, so higher temperatures and suitable accelerators are usually required. Because aliphatic epoxies have a lower electron density than aromatics, cycloaliphatic epoxies react less readily with nucleophiles than bisphenol A-based epoxy resins (which have aromatic ether groups). This means that conventional nucleophilic hardeners such as amines are hardly suitable for crosslinking. Cycloaliphatic epoxides are therefore usually homopolymerized thermally or UV-initiated in an electrophilic or cationic reaction. Due to the low dielectric constants and the absence of chlorine, cycloaliphatic epoxides are often used to encapsulate electronic systems, such as microchips or LEDs. They are also used for radiation-cured paints and varnishes. Due to their high price, however, their use has so far been limited to such applications.[14]

Epoxidized vegetable oils are formed by epoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids by reaction with peracids. In this case, the peracids can also be formed in situ by reacting carboxylic acids with hydrogen peroxide. Compared with LERs (liquid epoxy resins) they have very low viscosities. If, however, they are used in larger proportions as reactive diluents, this often leads to reduced chemical and thermal resistance and to poorer mechanical properties of the cured epoxides. Large scale epoxidized vegetable oils such as epoxidized soy and lens oils are used to a large extent as secondary plasticizers and cost stabilizers for PVC.[14]

Aliphatic glycidyl epoxy resins of low molar mass (mono-, bi- or polyfunctional) are formed by the reaction of epichlorohydrin with aliphatic alcohols or polyols (glycidyl ethers are formed) or with aliphatic carboxylic acids (glycidyl esters are formed). The reaction is carried out in the presence of a base such as sodium hydroxide, analogous to the formation of bisphenol A-diglycidyl ether. Also aliphatic glycidyl epoxy resins usually have a low viscosity compared to aromatic epoxy resins. They are therefore added to other epoxy resins as reactive diluents or as adhesion promoters. Epoxy resins made of (long-chain) polyols are also added to improve tensile strength and impact strength.

A related class is cycloaliphatic epoxy resin, which contains one or more cycloaliphatic rings in the molecule (e.g. 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate). This class also displays lower viscosity at room temperature, but offers significantly higher temperature resistance than the aliphatic epoxy diluents. However, reactivity is rather low compared to other classes of epoxy resin, and high temperature curing using suitable accelerators is normally required. As aromaticity is not present in these materials as it is in Bisphenol A and F resins, the UV stability is considerably improved.

Halogenated

[edit]

Halogenated epoxy resins are admixed for special properties, in particular brominated and fluorinated epoxy resins are used.[14]

Brominated bisphenol A is used when flame retardant properties are required, such as in some electrical applications (e.g. printed circuit boards). The tetrabrominated bisphenol A (TBBPA, 2,2-bis(3,5-dibromophenyl)propane) or its diglycidyl ether, 2,2-bis[3,5-dibromo-4-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)phenyl]propane, can be added to the epoxy formulation. The formulation may then be reacted in the same way as pure bisphenol A. Some (non-crosslinked) epoxy resins with very high molar mass are added to engineering thermoplastics, again to achieve flame retardant properties.

Fluorinated epoxy resins have been investigated for some high performance applications, such as the fluorinated diglycidether 5-heptafluoropropyl-1,3-bis[2-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)hexafluoro-2-propyl]benzene. As it has a low surface tension, it is added as a wetting agent (surfactant) for contact with glass fibres. Its reactivity to hardeners is comparable to that of bisphenol A. When cured, the epoxy resin leads to a thermosetting plastic with high chemical resistance and low water absorption. However, the commercial use of fluorinated epoxy resins is limited by their high cost and low Tg.

Diluents

[edit]

Epoxy resins diluents are typically formed by glycidylation of aliphatic alcohols or polyols and also aromatic alcohols. The resulting materials may be monofunctional (e.g. dodecanol glycidyl ether), difunctional (1,4-Butanediol diglycidyl ether), or higher functionality (e.g. trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether). These resins typically display low viscosity at room temperature (10–200 mPa.s) and are often referred to as reactive diluents.[18] They are rarely used alone, but are rather employed to modify (reduce) the viscosity of other epoxy resins.[19] This has led to the term modified epoxy resin to denote those containing viscosity-lowering reactive diluents.[20] The use of the diluent does effect mechanical properties and microstructure of epoxy resins.[21] Mechanical properties of epoxy resins are generally not improved by use of diluents.[21] Biobased epoxy diluents are also available.[22]

Glycidylamine

[edit]

Glycidylamine epoxy resins are higher functionality epoxies which are formed when aromatic amines are reacted with epichlorohydrin. Important industrial grades are triglycidyl-p-aminophenol (functionality 3) and N,N,N′,N′-tetraglycidyl-bis-(4-aminophenyl)-methane (functionality 4). The resins are low to medium viscosity at room temperature, which makes them easier to process than EPN or ECN resins. This coupled with high reactivity, plus high temperature resistance and mechanical properties of the resulting cured network makes them important materials for aerospace composite applications.

Curing

[edit]
Structure of a cured epoxy glue. The triamine hardener is shown in red, the resin in black. The resin's epoxide groups have reacted with the hardener and are not present anymore. The material is highly crosslinked and contains many OH groups, which confer adhesive properties

There are several dozen chemicals that can be used to cure epoxy, including amines, imidazoles, anhydrides and photosensitive chemicals.[23] The study of epoxy curing is usually carried out by using differential scanning calorimetry.[24]

In general, uncured epoxy resins have only poor mechanical, chemical and heat resistance properties.[25] However, good properties are obtained by reacting the linear epoxy resin with suitable curatives to form three-dimensional cross-linked thermoset structures. This process is commonly referred to as curing or gelation process.[26] Curing of epoxy resins is an exothermic reaction and in some cases produces sufficient heat to cause thermal degradation if not controlled.[27] Curing does induce residual stress in epoxy systems which have been studied.[28] The induced stresses may be alleviated with flexibilisers.

Curing may be achieved by reacting an epoxy with itself (homopolymerisation) or by forming a copolymer with polyfunctional curatives or hardeners. This curing is what produces the qualities of the substance such as resistance, durability, versatility, and adhesion. In principle, any molecule containing a reactive hydrogen may react with the epoxide groups of the epoxy resin. Common classes of hardeners for epoxy resins include amines, acids, acid anhydrides, phenols, alcohols and thiols. Relative reactivity (lowest first) is approximately in the order: phenol < anhydride < aromatic amine < cycloaliphatic amine < aliphatic amine < thiol.

While some epoxy resin/ hardener combinations will cure at ambient temperature, many require heat, with temperatures up to 150 °C (302 °F) being common, and up to 200 °C (392 °F) for some specialist systems. Insufficient heat during cure will result in a network with incomplete polymerisation, and thus reduced mechanical, chemical and heat resistance. Cure temperature should typically attain the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the fully cured network in order to achieve maximum properties. Temperature is sometimes increased in a step-wise fashion to control the rate of curing and prevent excessive heat build-up from the exothermic reaction.

Hardeners which show only low or limited reactivity at ambient temperature, but which react with epoxy resins at elevated temperature are referred to as latent hardeners. When using latent hardeners, the epoxy resin and hardener may be mixed and stored for some time prior to use, which is advantageous for many industrial processes. Very latent hardeners enable one-component (1K) products to be produced, whereby the resin and hardener are supplied pre-mixed to the end user and only require heat to initiate curing. One-component products generally have shorter shelf-lives than standard 2-component systems, and products may require cooled storage and transport.

The epoxy curing reaction may be accelerated by addition of small quantities of accelerators. Tertiary amines, carboxylic acids and alcohols (especially phenols) are effective accelerators. Bisphenol A is a highly effective and widely used accelerator, but is now increasingly replaced due to health concerns with this substance. The most widely used accelerator is 2,4,6-Tris(dimethylaminomethyl)phenol.[29][30]

Homopolymerisation

[edit]

Epoxy resin may be reacted with itself in the presence of an anionic catalyst (a Lewis base such as tertiary amines or imidazoles) or a cationic catalyst (a Lewis acid such as a boron trifluoride complex) to form a cured network. This process is known as catalytic homopolymerisation. The resulting network contains only ether bridges, and exhibits high thermal and chemical resistance, but is brittle and often requires elevated temperature for the curing process, so finds only niche applications industrially. Epoxy homopolymerisation is often used when there is a requirement for UV curing, since cationic UV catalysts may be employed (e.g. for UV coatings).

Amines

[edit]

Polyfunctional primary amines form an important class of epoxy hardeners. Primary amines undergo an addition reaction with the epoxide group to form a hydroxyl group and a secondary amine. The secondary amine can further react with an epoxide to form a tertiary amine and an additional hydroxyl group. Kinetic studies have shown the reactivity of the primary amine to be approximately double that of the secondary amine. Use of a difunctional or polyfunctional amine forms a three-dimensional cross-linked network. Aliphatic, cycloaliphatic and aromatic amines are all employed as epoxy hardeners. Amine type hardeners will alter both the processing properties (viscosity, reactivity) and the final properties (mechanical, temperature and heat resistance) of the cured copolymer network. Thus amine structure is normally selected according to the application. Overall reactivity potential for different hardeners can roughly be ordered; aliphatic amines > cycloaliphatic amines > aromatic amines, though aliphatic amines with steric hindrance near the amino groups may react as slowly as some of the aromatic amines. Slower reactivity allows longer working times for processors. Temperature resistance generally increases in the same order, since aromatic amines form much more rigid structures than aliphatic amines. Aromatic amines were widely used as epoxy resin hardeners, due to the excellent end properties when mixed with a parent resin. Over the past few decades concern about the possible adverse health effects of many aromatic amines has led to increased use of aliphatic or cycloaliphatic amine alternatives. Amines are also blended, adducted and reacted to alter properties and these amine resins are more often used to cure epoxy resins than a pure amine such as TETA. Increasingly, water-based polyamines are also used to help reduce the toxicity profile among other reasons.[citation needed]

Structure of TETA, a typical hardener. The amine (NH2) groups react with the epoxide groups of the resin during polymerisation.

Anhydrides

[edit]

Epoxy resins may be thermally cured with anhydrides to create polymers with significant property retention at elevated temperatures for extended periods of time. Reaction and subsequent crosslinking occur only after opening of the anhydride ring, e.g. by secondary hydroxyl groups in the epoxy resin. Homopolymerization may also occur between epoxide and hydroxyl groups. The high latency of anhydride hardeners makes them suitable for processing systems which require addition of mineral fillers prior to curing, e.g. for high voltage electrical insulators. Cure speed may be improved by matching anhydrides with suitable accelerators. For dianhydrides, and to a lesser extent, monoanhydrides, non-stoichiometric, empirical determinations are often used to optimize dosing levels. In some cases, blends of dianhydrides and monoanhydrides can improve metering and mixing with liquid epoxy resins.[31]

Phenols

[edit]

Polyphenols, such as bisphenol A or novolacs can react with epoxy resins at elevated temperatures (130–180 °C, 266–356 °F), normally in the presence of a catalyst. The resulting material has ether linkages and displays higher chemical and oxidation resistance than typically obtained by curing with amines or anhydrides. Since many novolacs are solids, this class of hardeners is often employed for powder coatings.

Thiols

[edit]

Also known as mercaptans, thiols contain a sulfur which reacts very readily with the epoxide group, even at ambient or sub-ambient temperatures. While the resulting network does not typically display high temperature or chemical resistance, the high reactivity of the thiol group makes it useful for applications where heated curing is not possible, or very fast cure is required e.g. for domestic DIY adhesives and chemical rock bolt anchors. Thiols have a characteristic odor, which can be detected in many two-component household adhesives.

Isocyanates

[edit]

The reaction of epoxide groups and isocyanate groups can result in two predominant types of ring structures: isocyanurate rings (through trimerization of isocyanate groups) and oxazolidinone rings (through the reaction of an isocyanate group with an epoxide group). The reaction is carried with the presence of a catalyst at temperatures ranging from 150 °C and 180 °C. studies have shown that there is a correlation between epoxy equivalent weight (EEW) and the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the final polymer, indicating that higher EEW corresponds to higher Tg.[32]

Applications

[edit]

The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and they are considered very versatile.[33] The applications include coatings, adhesives[34][35] and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties. They have been extensively used with concrete and cementitious systems.[36] In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically electrically insulating). Variations offering high thermal insulation, or thermal conductivity combined with high electrical resistance for electronics applications, are available.[37]

As with other classes of thermoset polymer materials, blending different grades of epoxy resin, as well as use of additives, plasticizers or fillers is common to achieve the desired processing or final properties, or to reduce cost. Use of blending, additives and fillers is often referred to as formulating.

All quantities of mix generate their own heat because the reaction is exothermic. Large quantities will generate more heat and thus greatly increase the rate of the reaction and so reduce working time (pot-life). So it is good practice to mix smaller amounts which can be used quickly to avoid waste and to be safer. There are various methods of toughening them, as they can be brittle.[38] Rubber toughening is a key technology used for toughening.[39][40]

Paints and coatings

[edit]

Two part epoxy coatings were developed for heavy duty service on metal substrates and use less energy than heat-cured powder coatings. These systems provide a tough, protective coating with excellent hardness. One part epoxy coatings are formulated as an emulsion in water, and can be cleaned up without solvents.

Epoxy coatings are often used in industrial and automotive applications by various companies since they are more heat resistant than latex-based and alkyd-based paints. Epoxy paints tend to deteriorate, known as "chalking out", due to UV exposure.[41] Epoxy coatings have also been used in drinking water applications.[42] Epoxy coatings find much use to protect mild and other steels due to their excellent protective properties.[43]

Change in color, known as yellowing, is a common phenomenon for epoxy materials and is often of concern in art and conservation applications. Epoxy resins yellow with time, even when not exposed to UV radiation. Significant advances in understanding yellowing of epoxies were achieved by Down first in 1984 (natural dark aging) [44] and later in 1986 (high-intensity light aging).[45] Down investigated various room-temperature-cure epoxy resin adhesives suitable for use in glass conservation, testing their tendency to yellow. A fundamental molecular understanding of epoxy yellowing was achieved, when Krauklis and Echtermeyer discovered the mechanistic origin of yellowing in a commonly used amine epoxy resin, published in 2018.[46] They found that the molecular reason for epoxy yellowing was a thermo-oxidative evolution of carbonyl groups in the polymeric carbon–carbon backbone via a nucleophilic radical attack.

Polyester epoxies are used as powder coatings for washers, driers and other "white goods". Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coatings (FBE) are extensively used for corrosion protection of steel pipes and fittings used in the oil and gas industry, potable water transmission pipelines (steel), and concrete reinforcing rebar. Epoxy coatings are also widely used as primers to improve the adhesion of automotive and marine paints especially on metal surfaces where corrosion (rusting) resistance is important. Metal cans and containers are often coated with epoxy to prevent rusting, especially for foods like tomatoes that are acidic. Epoxy resins are also used for decorative flooring applications such as terrazzo flooring, chip flooring, and colored aggregate flooring.

Epoxies have been modified in a variety of ways, including reacting with fatty acids derived from oils to yield epoxy esters, which were cured the same way as alkyds. Typical ones were L8 (80% linseed) and D4 (40% dehydrated castor oil). These were often reacted with styrene to make styrenated epoxy esters, used as primers. Curing with phenolics to make drum linings, curing esters with amine resins and pre-curing epoxies with amino resins to make resistant top coats. Organic chains maybe used to hydrophobically modify epoxy resins and change their properties. The effect of chain length of the modifiers has been studied.[47]

Adhesives

[edit]
Special epoxy is strong enough to withstand the forces between a surfboard fin and the fin mount. This epoxy is waterproof and capable of curing underwater. The blue-colored epoxy on the left is still undergoing curing

Epoxy adhesives are a major part of the class of adhesives called "structural adhesives" or "engineering adhesives" (that includes polyurethane, acrylic, cyanoacrylate, and other chemistries.) These high-performance adhesives are used in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, golf clubs, skis, snowboards, and other applications where high strength bonds are required. Epoxy adhesives can be developed to suit almost any application. They can be used as adhesives for wood, metal, glass, stone, and some plastics. They can be made flexible or rigid, transparent or opaque/colored, fast setting or slow setting. Epoxy adhesives are better in heat and chemical resistance than other common adhesives. In general, epoxy adhesives cured with heat will be more heat- and chemical-resistant than those cured at room temperature. The strength of epoxy adhesives is degraded at temperatures above 350 °F (177 °C).[48]

Some epoxies are cured by exposure to ultraviolet light. Such epoxies are commonly used in optics, fiber optics, and optoelectronics.

Industrial tooling and composites

[edit]

Epoxy systems are used in industrial tooling applications to produce molds, master models, laminates, castings, fixtures, and other industrial production aids. This "plastic tooling" replaces metal, wood and other traditional materials, and generally improves the efficiency and either lowers the overall cost or shortens the lead-time for many industrial processes. Epoxies are also used in producing fiber-reinforced or composite parts. They are more expensive than polyester resins and vinyl ester resins, but usually produce stronger and more temperature-resistant thermoset polymer matrix composite parts. Machine bedding to overcome vibrations is a use in the form of epoxy granite.

Wind turbine technology composites

[edit]

Epoxy resins are used as bonding matrix along with glass or carbon fiber fabrics to produce composites with very high strength to weight characteristics, allowing longer and more efficient rotor blades to be produced.[49] In addition, for offshore and onshore wind energy installations, epoxy resins are used as protective coatings on steel towers, base struts and concrete foundations. Aliphatic polyurethane top coats are applied on top to ensure full UV protection, prolong operational lifetimes and lowering maintenance costs. Electric generators, connected via the drivetrain with the rotor blades, convert mechanical wind energy to usable electric energy, and rely on epoxies electrical insulation and high thermal resistance properties. The same applies to transformers, bushings, spacers, and composites cables connecting the windmills to the grid. In Europe, wind energy components account for the largest segment of epoxy applications, about 27% of the market.[50]

Electrical systems and electronics

[edit]
An epoxy encapsulated hybrid circuit on a printed circuit board.
The interior of a pocket calculator. The dark lump of epoxy in the center covers the processor chip

Epoxy resin formulations are important in the electronics industry, and are employed in motors, generators, transformers, switchgear, bushings, insulators, printed wiring boards (PWB), and semiconductor encapsulants. Epoxy resins are excellent electrical insulators and protect electrical components from short circuiting, dust and moisture. In the electronics industry epoxy resins are the primary resin used in overmolding integrated circuits, transistors and hybrid circuits, and making printed circuit boards. The largest volume type of circuit board—an "FR-4 board"—is a sandwich of layers of glass cloth bonded into a composite by an epoxy resin. Epoxy resins are used to bond copper foil to circuit board substrates, and are a component of the solder mask on many circuit boards.

Flexible epoxy resins are used for potting transformers and inductors. By using vacuum impregnation on uncured epoxy, winding-to-winding, winding-to-core, and winding-to-insulator air voids are eliminated. The cured epoxy is an electrical insulator and a much better conductor of heat than air. Transformer and inductor hot spots are greatly reduced, giving the component a stable and longer life than unpotted product.

Epoxy resins are applied using the technology of resin dispensing.

Petroleum & petrochemical

[edit]

Epoxies can be used to plug selective layers in a reservoir which are producing excessive brine. The technique is named "water shut-off treatment".[26]

Consumer and marine applications

[edit]

Epoxies are sold in hardware stores, typically as a pack containing separate resin and hardener, which must be mixed immediately before use. They are also sold in boat shops as repair resins for marine applications. Epoxies typically are not used in the outer layer of a boat because they deteriorate by exposure to UV light. They are often used during boat repair and assembly, and then over-coated with conventional or two-part polyurethane paint or marine-varnishes that provide UV protection.

There are two main areas of marine use. Because of the better mechanical properties relative to the more common polyester resins, epoxies are used for commercial manufacture of components where a high strength/weight ratio is required. The second area is that their strength, gap filling properties and excellent adhesion to many materials including timber have created a boom in amateur building projects including aircraft and boats.

Normal gelcoat formulated for use with polyester resins and vinylester resins does not adhere to epoxy surfaces, though epoxy adheres very well if applied to polyester resin surfaces. "Flocoat" that is normally used to coat the interior of polyester fibreglass yachts is also compatible with epoxies.

Epoxy materials tend to harden somewhat more gradually, while polyester materials tend to harden quickly, particularly if a lot of catalyst is used.[51] The chemical reactions in both cases are exothermic.

While it is common to associate polyester resins and epoxy resins, their properties are sufficiently different that they are properly treated as distinct materials. Polyester resins are typically low strength unless used with a reinforcing material like glass fibre, are relatively brittle unless reinforced, and have low adhesion. Epoxies, by contrast, are inherently strong, somewhat flexible and have excellent adhesion. However, polyester resins are much cheaper.

Epoxy resins typically require a precise mix of two components which form a third chemical to get the stated properties. Depending on the properties required, the ratio may be anything from 1:1 or over 10:1, but in usually they must be mixed exactly. The final product is then a precise thermoset plastic. Until they are mixed the two elements are relatively inert, although the 'hardeners' tend to be more chemically active and should be protected from the atmosphere and moisture. The rate of the reaction can be changed by using different hardeners, which may change the nature of the final product, or by controlling the temperature.

By contrast, polyester resins are usually made available in a 'promoted' form, such that the progress of previously-mixed resins from liquid to solid is already underway, albeit very slowly. The only variable available to the user is to change the rate of this process using a catalyst, often Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone-Peroxide (MEKP), which is very toxic. The presence of the catalyst in the final product actually detracts from the desirable properties, so that small amounts of catalyst are preferable, so long as the hardening proceeds at an acceptable pace. The rate of cure of polyesters can therefore be controlled by the amount and type of catalyst as well as by the temperature.

As adhesives, epoxies bond in three ways: a) Mechanically, because the bonding surfaces are roughened; b) by proximity, because the cured resins are physically so close to the bonding surfaces that they are hard to separate; c) ionically, because the epoxy resins form ionic bonds at an atomic level with the bonding surfaces. This last is substantially the strongest of the three.[citation needed] By contrast, polyester resins can only bond using the first two of these, which greatly reduces their utility as adhesives and in marine repair.

Construction applications

[edit]

Epoxies have been researched and used for construction for a few decades.[52] Although they increase cost of mortars and concrete when used as an additive,[53] they enhance properties. Research is ongoing to investigate the use of epoxies and other recycled plastics in mortars to enhance properties and recycle waste.[54] Densifying plastic materials such as PET and plastic bags and then using them to partially replace aggregate and depolymerizing PET to use as a polymeric binder in addition to epoxy to enhance concrete are actively being studied.[55]

Aerospace applications

[edit]

In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material which is then reinforced by fiber. Typical fiber reinforcements include glass, carbon, Kevlar, and boron. Epoxies are also used as a structural glue. Materials like wood, and others that are 'low-tech' are glued with epoxy resin. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical properties and resistance to environmental degradation.[56]

Biology

[edit]

Water-soluble epoxies such as Durcupan[57][58] are commonly used for embedding electron microscope samples in plastic so they may be sectioned (sliced thin) with a microtome and then imaged.[59]

Art

[edit]

Epoxy resin, mixed with pigment, may be used as a painting medium, by pouring layers on top of each other to form a complete picture.[60] It is also used in jewelry, as a doming resin for decorations and labels, and in decoupage type applications for art, countertops, and tables.[61] Its seamless and glossy finish, along with its ability to be molded into various shapes, makes epoxy resin a favored choice for creating minimalist and statement pieces in modern furniture design[62] and into various other design styles, including industrial, rustic, and even eclectic. It has been used and studied for art and historic structure preservation.[63][64][65]

Production

[edit]

The global epoxy resin market was valued at approximately $8 billion in 2016. The epoxy resin market is dominated by the Asia-Pacific region, which contributes 55.2% of the total market share. China is the major producer and consumer globally, consuming almost 35% of the global resin production. The global market is made up of approximately 50–100 manufacturers of basic or commodity epoxy resins and hardeners. In Europe, about 323,000 tonnes of epoxy resin were manufactured in 2017 generating some €1,055 million in sales. Germany [50] is the largest market for epoxy resins in Europe, followed by Italy, France, the UK, Spain, the Netherlands and Austria.

These commodity epoxy manufacturers mentioned above typically do not sell epoxy resins in a form usable to smaller end users, so there is another group of companies that purchases epoxy raw materials from the major producers and then compounds (blends, modifies, or otherwise customizes) epoxy systems from these raw materials. These companies are known as "formulators". The majority of the epoxy systems sold are produced by these formulators and they comprise over 60% of the dollar value of the epoxy market. There are hundreds of ways that these formulators can modify epoxies—by adding mineral fillers (talc, silica, alumina, etc.), by adding flexibilizers, viscosity reducers, colorants, thickeners, accelerators, adhesion promoters, etc. These modifications are made to reduce costs, to improve performance, and to improve processing convenience. As a result, a typical formulator sells dozens or even thousands of formulations—each tailored to the requirements of a particular application or market.

The raw materials for epoxy resin production are today largely petroleum derived, although some plant derived sources are now becoming commercially available (e.g. plant derived glycerol used to make epichlorohydrin).

Renewable, recycled, waterborne and biobased epoxy

[edit]

As there is a general trend to renewable and "green" sources and greater use of biobased materials, research is ongoing in the epoxy arena too.[66][67][68][69] Waterborne epoxy paints have been around since the 1970s and research is ongoing.[70] There is also movement to use waste as well as recycled raw materials where possible. Waste granite filings are produced in the mining industry. Research is being done on innovative solutions such as using waste granite powders in epoxy resins and designing binders for coatings based on this.[71] Other work is ongoing to produce epoxy and epoxy based coatings from recycled raw materials including PET bottles.[72] Monomers for epoxy resins can be derived from several different biomass sources.[73]

Health risks

[edit]

Liquid epoxy resins in their uncured state are mostly classed as irritant to the eyes and skin, as well as toxic to aquatic organisms.[8] Solid epoxy resins are generally safer than liquid epoxy resins, and many are classified non-hazardous materials. One particular risk associated with epoxy resins is sensitization. The risk has been shown to be more pronounced in epoxy resins containing low molecular weight epoxy diluents.[74] Exposure to epoxy resins can, over time, induce an allergic reaction. Sensitization generally occurs due to repeated exposure (e.g. through poor working hygiene or lack of protective equipment) over a long period of time. Allergic reaction sometimes occurs at a time which is delayed several days from the exposure. Allergic reaction is often visible in the form of dermatitis, particularly in areas where the exposure has been highest (commonly hands and forearms). Epoxy use is a main source of occupational asthma among users of plastics.[75] Safe disposal also needs considering but usually involves deliberate curing to produce solid rather than liquid waste.[76]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ May, Clayton (2018). Epoxy Resins: Chemistry and Technology (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-351-44995-3.
  2. ^ Rodríguez-Uicab, Omar; Abot, Jandro L.; Avilés, Francis (January 2020). "Electrical Resistance Sensing of Epoxy Curing Using an Embedded Carbon Nanotube Yarn". Sensors. 20 (11): 3230. Bibcode:2020Senso..20.3230R. doi:10.3390/s20113230. PMC 7309011. PMID 32517164.
  3. ^ Miturska, Izabela; Rudawska, Anna; Müller, Miroslav; Hromasová, Monika (January 2021). "The Influence of Mixing Methods of Epoxy Composition Ingredients on Selected Mechanical Properties of Modified Epoxy Construction Materials". Materials. 14 (2): 411. Bibcode:2021Mate...14..411M. doi:10.3390/ma14020411. PMC 7830189. PMID 33467604.
  4. ^ "US Patent Application for FIRE-RESISTANT GLAZING Patent Application (Application #20130196091 issued August 1, 2013) - Justia Patents Search". patents.justia.com. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
  5. ^ Sukanto, Heru; Raharjo, Wijang Wisnu; Ariawan, Dody; Triyono, Joko; Kaavesina, Mujtahid (12 July 2021). "Epoxy resins thermosetting for mechanical engineering". Open Engineering. 11 (1): 797–814. Bibcode:2021OEng...11...78S. doi:10.1515/eng-2021-0078.
  6. ^ "Health Effects from Overexposure to Epoxy • WEST SYSTEM". WEST SYSTEM. Retrieved 2021-06-11.
  7. ^ Mathias, C. G. Toby (1987). "Allergic Contact Dermatitis from a Nonbisphenol A Epoxy in a Graphite Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Laminate". Journal of Occupational Medicine. 29 (9): 754–755. JSTOR 45007846. PMID 3681510.
  8. ^ a b Holness, D. Linn; Nethercott, James R. (1989). "Occupational Contact Dermatitis Due to Epoxy Resin in a Fiberglass Binder". Journal of Occupational Medicine. 31 (2): 87–89. JSTOR 45015475. PMID 2523476.
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[edit]
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